How Linen Is Made – From Flax to Tablecloths and Napkins
Linen is made from the fibres of the flax plant. But turning a slender plant stem into a woven fabric suitable for tablecloths and napkins requires a surprisingly long series of processing steps.
Flax must first be grown and harvested, then retted, broken, scutched and hackled before the fibres can be spun into linen yarn. Only after spinning and weaving does the actual linen fabric emerge.
On this page, we follow the process from flax cultivation to finished table linen and explain why fibre preparation has such a strong influence on the character of the final fabric.
If you would like to compare linen with cotton, polyester or other tablecloth materials, our material guide focuses on the differences in use, care and appearance.
Flax and linen – a long textile tradition in Westphalia
Flax cultivation, spinning and weaving have a long history in Westphalia. Linen production was especially important in the Ravensberg region around Bielefeld and in parts of the Tecklenburg area.
For centuries, flax was grown on farms and processed through many labour-intensive stages before it could be spun and woven. Linen was produced both for domestic use and, increasingly, for regional and international trade.
The countryside around Bielefeld developed into one of Westphalia's important centres for flax growing, spinning and linen weaving.
Many individual production stages were carried out in rural households before the finished cloth reached merchants and markets.
Bielefeld became particularly important as a centre for the trade in linen and linen yarn.
During the 19th century, mechanical flax spinning and weaving increasingly replaced traditional hand production.
Flax cultivation and linen processing were also known in the Münsterland region, where textile production formed part of rural life for generations.
With industrialisation, however, cotton became increasingly important in Westphalian textile production.
Today, our table linen business is based in Münster. The regional history of flax and linen therefore provides an interesting background to a material that is still used for table textiles today.
Sowing and growing – producing long flax stems for textile fibres
Linen production begins in the field. Fibre flax is grown primarily for its long, slender stems rather than for its seeds. Inside these stems are the bast fibres that will eventually become linen yarn.
Fibre flax is generally sown densely. This encourages the plants to grow tall and relatively straight with fewer side branches – an important advantage when long textile fibres are required.
Fibre flax plants grow close together and compete for light and space.
As a result, they tend to form long, straight stems instead of developing many branches.
Under suitable conditions, fibre flax grows quickly and can reach approximately one metre in height.
The valuable textile fibres develop lengthwise within these slender stems.
Flax is well known for its delicate flowers, which are commonly blue.
Individual flowers remain open only briefly, so the appearance of a flowering flax field can change considerably during the day.
For linen production, the stem is more important than the flower or seed.
The bast fibre bundles run through the stem and must later be separated from its woody components.
The cultivation of fibre flax is already geared towards the later textile product. Long, even stems make it possible to obtain long fibres that can be prepared and spun into fine linen yarn.
Harvesting – why fibre flax is pulled rather than cut
Fibre flax is traditionally pulled from the soil rather than simply cut like many other crops.
The reason is closely linked to the textile fibre: keeping as much of the stem as possible preserves the maximum usable fibre length.
Pulling removes the plant while preserving almost its entire stem length.
What was once demanding manual work is now performed mechanically in modern flax-growing regions.
The bast fibres run lengthwise through the stem. Cutting the plant above the ground would shorten the available material.
Pulling therefore reflects the aim of preserving long textile fibres from the beginning.
The harvesting stage must balance plant maturity with the quality required for textile fibres.
The objective differs from growing flax mainly for fully mature seeds.
After pulling, fibre flax is laid down in rows. This prepares the crop for one of the most important stages in fibre extraction: retting.
Pulling rather than cutting illustrates how early the requirements of textile production influence flax cultivation. The aim is to preserve the long bast fibres contained within the stem.
Rippling and retting – preparing the flax stem for fibre extraction
After harvesting, the flax stems must be prepared so that the long bast fibres can later be separated from the other parts of the plant.
Two important processes are rippling and retting. Rippling removes the seed capsules, while retting helps loosen the natural bonds between the fibres and the surrounding stem tissue.
Traditionally, flax was pulled through a coarse, comb-like tool known as a ripple.
The stems passed between the teeth while the seed capsules were stripped away.
The bast fibres are naturally bonded to the surrounding tissues of the flax stem.
During retting, microorganisms help break down some of these binding substances so that the fibres can later be separated mechanically.
With dew retting, the pulled stems are spread in rows and remain exposed to changing weather conditions.
Moisture and naturally occurring microorganisms gradually act on the stems and loosen the fibre bundles.
The flax is turned so that the process can develop more evenly throughout the stems.
Too little retting makes fibre separation difficult, while excessive retting can weaken the fibres.
Retting does not create the flax fibre. The fibres have already developed inside the plant. The process makes it possible to separate them more effectively from the woody parts of the stem.
Breaking, scutching and hackling – producing spinnable flax fibre
After retting and drying, the fibres are easier to separate, but they are still surrounded by woody material and shorter fibres.
The next stages – breaking, scutching and hackling – progressively clean and align the flax until long fibre bundles suitable for spinning remain.
During breaking, the dried flax stems are mechanically crushed so that their hard woody core breaks apart.
The aim is to break the woody material while preserving as much of the long fibre as possible.
Scutching removes many of the broken pieces of stem that remain among the fibres after breaking.
The fibre bundles become increasingly cleaner, softer and more visible.
During hackling, the flax fibres pass through increasingly fine combs or pins.
Short fibres and remaining impurities are removed while the long fibres become more parallel.
The long, carefully aligned fibres left after hackling are particularly suitable for producing finer linen yarns.
Fibre length and preparation therefore influence the quality of the textile long before weaving begins.
The shorter fibres removed during processing are commonly known as tow.
They can also be spun and used for textiles, although their properties differ from those of the longest flax fibres.
After these stages, the original straw-like stem has changed dramatically.
Long, clean fibre bundles are now ready for the next stage: spinning linen yarn.
Spinning – turning flax fibres into linen yarn
After hackling, the long flax fibres are clean and largely aligned, but loose fibres cannot yet be woven into fabric. They first have to be spun into a continuous linen yarn.
During spinning, fibres are drawn out in a controlled way and twisted together. This twist gives the strand enough cohesion and strength for further textile processing.
Long fibres that have been carefully aligned during hackling can be drawn out more evenly.
This is one reason why the previous fibre preparation is so important for the finished yarn.
During spinning, only a controlled quantity of fibres is drawn from the bundle at a time.
The more evenly this happens, the more even the resulting yarn can become.
The individual flax fibres are twisted around one another, creating a continuous thread.
Loose plant fibres thus become yarn that can be wound, transported and used on a loom.
Flax has traditionally been moistened during fine spinning. Modern wet-spinning processes also use moisture when producing particularly smooth linen yarns.
This helps the fibres lie more closely together and can produce a finer, smoother yarn.
Different fibre qualities and spinning methods produce yarns of different thicknesses and characteristics.
A fine table linen fabric requires a different yarn from a deliberately coarse or rustic linen fabric.
Once spun, linen yarn can be wound onto suitable packages and prepared for weaving.
The next stage finally transforms individual threads into a continuous textile surface.
Weaving – turning linen yarn into fabric
Weaving is the stage at which individual linen yarns finally become a continuous fabric. Longitudinal warp threads are interlaced with transverse weft threads.
The way these threads cross each other influences the appearance, density, surface and handling characteristics of the finished fabric.
Warp threads are arranged lengthwise on the loom and kept under controlled tension.
They form the basic framework through which the weft threads are inserted.
The weft travels across the warp and is beaten into the existing cloth.
Repeating this process row after row gradually produces the woven surface.
Fibre alone does not determine how a textile looks. The construction of the weave is equally important.
It can influence density, texture, strength, lustre and the overall visual effect of the fabric.
Linen often has a more visibly textured appearance than very uniform cotton fabrics.
Small variations in yarn and surface can form part of its natural character rather than indicating a defect.
The width available for later production depends on the loom and the textile being manufactured.
For large tablecloths, sufficiently wide fabrics are useful because they can avoid unnecessary seams through the centre of the tablecloth.
After weaving, there is finally a continuous linen fabric.
However, further washing, bleaching, finishing, cutting and sewing may still be required before it becomes a finished tablecloth or napkin.
Washing, bleaching and finishing – creating the final appearance
Freshly woven linen is not automatically as pale, smooth or soft as finished table linen. Depending on the intended product, further processes may include washing, bleaching and textile finishing.
The exact treatment depends on whether the finished fabric is intended to remain natural, become white, be dyed or receive particular surface characteristics.
Unbleached linen can show natural shades ranging from beige and grey to slightly yellowish or brownish tones.
For some products, this natural appearance is deliberately retained.
Washing processes can remove processing residues and prepare the cloth for further finishing.
They may also influence the handle and appearance of the fabric.
Historically, linen could be washed repeatedly, moistened and laid outdoors on bleaching grounds to be gradually lightened.
Producing pale or white linen therefore involved additional work compared with leaving the fabric in its natural colour.
Modern textile production uses controlled processes to produce the required degree of whiteness.
Treatment is adapted to the fibre, fabric and intended final product.
Textile finishing includes a range of processes that can influence the feel, surface or performance of a fabric.
The treatment used depends on the characteristics required from the finished textile.
Colour alone does not determine whether a fabric is genuine linen.
Natural-coloured and white linen may originate from the same plant fibre but differ in the way the textile has been processed and finished.
From linen fabric to tablecloths and napkins
Even after weaving and finishing, the fabric is not yet a tablecloth or napkin. It still has to be cut and made up into the finished product.
Dimensions, table shape, hems, corners and the behaviour of the material during washing all have to be considered during this stage.
Rectangular and square tablecloths can be cut according to their intended shape and dimensions.
Round and oval tablecloths require appropriately shaped cutting and a hem that follows the curved edge evenly.
The cut fabric edges are turned and sewn to produce a clean, durable finish.
Hem width and construction can vary depending on the design and quality of the table linen.
High-quality rectangular or square table linen may use mitred corners, where the hems meet diagonally.
This produces a flatter and particularly neat corner finish.
With cloth napkins, all four edges and corners remain clearly visible when the table is set.
Even hems, balanced proportions and accurate sewing therefore make an important difference to the finished appearance.
Natural-fibre textiles can change dimensions during their first washes.
For our table linen, the stated size refers to the intended finished size after washing. Expected shrinkage is already taken into account during production.
Once cutting, sewing and quality control are complete, the original flax fibre has finally become a finished tablecloth or cloth napkin.
It is the final stage of a production process that began much earlier in the flax field.
If you order a tablecloth from us in a stated size, that measurement represents its intended size after washing. A new natural-fibre tablecloth may therefore initially be slightly larger before its first wash.
Linen and half-linen – what is the difference?
The many stages involved in producing flax fibre help explain why linen continues to be regarded as a distinctive natural textile.
Modern table linen can use pure linen or combine flax with other fibres. One term you may encounter is half-linen, in which linen and cotton are combined within the fabric.
Pure linen receives its characteristic appearance from flax fibres.
A subtly varied surface can be part of the natural appearance of the material rather than a defect.
Half-linen combines flax and cotton, bringing characteristics of both natural fibres into one textile.
The exact fibre composition should always be checked in the information provided for the individual product.
Linen and half-linen often have a more natural, visibly textile character than very smooth and highly uniform fabrics.
This makes them particularly attractive for modern, understated or naturally styled tables.
Our range includes half-linen cloth napkins in colours including white, natural and dark blue.
They can complement classic white table linen as well as more relaxed and natural table settings.
Linen is not automatically the best material for every tablecloth or every situation.
Washing requirements, frequency of use, ease of care and the desired appearance should all be considered.
Flax is one of the oldest plants used for textiles, but linen does not have to look traditional.
Its visible structure is one reason why linen and half-linen continue to suit contemporary table settings particularly well.
Our half-linen cloth napkins provide an alternative to classic smooth cotton and damask napkins and introduce a deliberately more textured look to the table.
If you need table linen for frequent commercial use, high washing temperatures or particularly easy care, it is worth comparing the available materials.
Learn more about linen, tablecloth materials and table linen care
The journey from flax plant to woven linen involves far more processing than the finished fabric suggests. If you are choosing, using or caring for table linen, our other guides provide more practical information.
Find out which tablecloth materials are suited to different uses and how they differ in appearance, care and everyday handling.
Tablecloth material guide →Learn about washing temperatures, drying, ironing, shrinkage and care symbols for table linen.
Washing and care guide →Find explanations of terms such as linen, half-linen, warp, weft, damask, full-twist yarn and textile finishing.
Table linen glossary →Our literature page provides additional books and publications relating to table linen, textiles and the history of table culture.
Further reading →Growing, pulling, rippling, retting, breaking, scutching, hackling, spinning and weaving are followed by finishing, cutting and sewing before linen can finally become a tablecloth or cloth napkin.
This combination of natural fibre, textile craftsmanship and a long manufacturing tradition is what gives linen its distinctive place among table linen materials.